Other inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) have been shown to be elevated in the systemic circulation following peripheral injury (e.g. bone fracture) [29, 31–33, 71] as well as in TBI [27, 72, 73]. The gene discussed is CSF2; the disease is bone fracture.