There is evidence that protective immune responses against malaria (sporozoites or blood stages) are initiated when antigen-presenting cells, DCs or macrophages, internalize the parasite and process and present its antigens to T cells via MHCI (through cross-presentation) or MHCII in a proinflammatory environment in which IL-12, TNFα, and IFNγ are produced. Here, TNF is linked to malaria.