TNF and malaria: The parasite pleiotropic influence-exerting GPI induces high levels of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) release from macrophages, causing the pyrexia and cachexia of malaria when it substitutes for the host GPI-based signal transduction in regulating protein kinase C, calcium levels, cell adhesion and nitric oxide (NO) synthesis [57, 58].