TNF and neoplasm: In hypoxic areas, TAMs stimulate angiogenesis by secreting TGF-β, VEGF, granulocyte macrophage (GM)-CSF, TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8, promote tumor cell migration and invasion via matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), TNF-α, and IL-1 and induce immunosuppression via TGF-β, PGE2, and IL-10.