TNF and systemic lupus erythematosus: It is important to understand how they are activated in the context of lupus. In vitro studies suggest that self-DNA and/or self-RNA containing antigens could activate cDC [46–48]. In vitro generated moDC from both healthy human PBMC and wild-type mouse bone marrow can be activated by necrotic or apoptotic cell particles containing self-DNA and self-RNA to produce inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNFα), upregulate MHC-II and costimulatory molecules (CD40, CD80, and CD86), and activate allogeneic T cells that in turn produce IL-2, IFNγ, and IL-17.