CCL2 and autoimmune disease: Autoimmune diseases are characterized as low-grade chronic inflammatory diseases that demonstrate leukocyte infiltration to the tissue, mostly by lymphocytes, and elevated levels of local and/or systemic inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors (e.g., IL-1β, TNFα, IL-6, CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL8/IL-8, and VEGF), reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS, RNS), and autoantibodies [14].