CSF2 and neoplasm: Consistent with previous studies, documenting the ability of the Granulocyte Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factors (GM-CSF) to induce the migration of antigen presentation cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes into tumor lesions [37,43,44], in the current study, GM-CSF was found to be significantly associated with cervical lesions but not with HPV, suggesting an important role for this host immune-mediator in development and progression of the lesion.