HMGB1 and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Macrophage phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is also inhibited by the alarmin high mobility group protein-1 (HMGB1) [83, 84], and elevated levels of HMGB1 both in the airways and peripheral blood of patients with COPD have recently been reported, negatively correlating with patient lung function [20, 85].