SMAD7 and inflammatory bowel disease: The neutralization of TGFβ1 increases Th1 and Th17 responses in IBD; however, exogenous TGFβ1 does not inhibit inflammation because of a block in intracellular signaling mediated by Smad7.76 On the basis of the above, fecal transplantation was developed as a mean for the treatment of IBD.77