Since at the cellular level, cardiac hypertrophy is characterized by enlarged cell size, increased protein synthesis, an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration, and reactivation of cardiac hypertrophy markers such as the ANP, BNP, and c-Myc31, 32, our results indicated that Phe exposure was capable of inducing cardiac hypertrophy. Here, NPPA is linked to cardiac hypertrophy.