TNF and diabetes mellitus: For example, diabetes-induced reduction of gastrointestinal motility and acid secretion may promote pathogen colonization and infection rate in the gut [9]. H. pylori infection may also contribute to the development of diabetes as the infection is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation with upregulation of cytokines such as C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor, and interleukin 1β, which may influence insulin action and pancreatic β cell secretion.