However, the absence of dystrophin alone cannot immediately account for the intricate clinical course and pathogenic mechanisms seen in DMD (Berchtold et al., 2000; Allen et al., 2010; Allen and Whitehead, 2011), and multiple hypotheses have been proposed as intervening events to explain the pathological alterations observed in DMD (Florence et al., 1985; McArdle et al., 1995; Tutdibi et al., 1999; Berchtold et al., 2000; Lovering et al., 2009a, 2013; Allen et al., 2010; Allen and Whitehead, 2011; Pratt et al., 2013, 2015; Xu et al., 2012; Mazala et al., 2015). Here, DMD is linked to Duchenne muscular dystrophy.