Observational studies have shown that higher coffee consumption was associated with decreased fasting insulin [26] and 2-h post-load glucose [27], and homeostatic model assessment levels [26,28,29], increased insulin sensitivity [30], but other studies have shown no association of coffee consumption with fasting insulin [27,31] or homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA–IR) [31]. Here, INS is linked to Insulin resistance.