VCP and cancer: Indeed, VCP-targeting compounds activate caspases and have an impact on both ubiquitin-dependent and autophagic pathways in cancer cells in vitro and in vivo.27, 41, 42 In contrast, primary rat hepatocytes and mouse skeletal muscle cells do not undergo apoptosis on VCP depletion and non-malignant human cells appear to be less susceptible to VCP inhibition than cancer cells.27, 43, 44 Phase I clinical trials of one VCP inhibitor are currently underway in patients with advanced solid cancers and relapsed/refractory myeloma (https://clinicaltrials.gov, NCT02243917 and NCT02223598).