TGFB1 and infection: Mitogen-activated protein kinases can also mediate TGF-β signaling through Smad-independent pathways, including TGF-β-activated kinase (TAK1 and MAP3K7), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK and MAPK3), Jun-N-terminal-3-kinase (JNK and MAPK8) (33, 34), all of which are significantly phosphorylated in the ceca from the Salmonella-infected chickens at 4 days post-infection.