Second, astaxanthin reduced inflammation and insulin resistance more potently than did vitamin E. Of note, these anti-inflammatory and insulin sensitizing effects were associated with attenuated MAPK (JNK/p38 MAPK) and NF-κB activation (Fig. 4), decreased macrophage/Kupffer cell and T cell accumulation, as well as alternative M2 macrophage activation in the liver (Fig. 5). Here, INS is linked to Insulin resistance.