To better mimic the early events in T1D pathogenesis we used a relatively low dose of these cytokines (1.6ng/ml IFNγ, 0.25ng/ml Il-1β and 0.16ng/ml TNFα, or roughly 1/64th the dose typically used to induce β-cell dysfunction and apoptosis in culture [5,34]) for four days. Here, TNF is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.