TNF and neoplasm: In the inflammatory pathway, TAMs are activated by a tumor antigen and are then reprogrammed into M1 macrophages, leading to enhanced humoral and cellular immune reactions and increased apoptosis of cancer cells due to the production of nitric oxide (NO) and inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and IL-23 [8].