TNF and tuberculosis: In the study by Tadokera et al., PBMC from paradoxical TB-IRIS patients stimulated with heat-killed M. tuberculosis secreted significantly higher concentrations of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p40, IFN-γ, GM-CSF, and TNF-α, compared to those from the non-IRIS controls [77].