INS and Hyperglycemia: Mitochondria have an imperative role in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and β-cell survival.29, 30 During chronic hyperglycemia, impaired mitochondria leads to considerable production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn aggravates mitochondrial damage and other intracellular abnormalities, contributing to β-cell dysfunction and apoptosis.31 However, several studies have reported that autophagy can remove damaged organelles, such as mitochondria, as an adaptive response to unfavorable circumstances.