The Ghanaian men had the lowest mean insulin and leptin levels (79.8 ± 28.1 pmol/L and 4.9 ± 6.3 μg/L, respectively), while the US men had the highest insulin, leptin, as well as percentage participants with diabetes (138.0 ± 91.4 pmol/L, 11.2 ± 13.4 μg/L, and 6.7 %, respectively). Here, INS is linked to diabetes mellitus.