In contrast to the macrophages from healthy subjects, the macrophages from patients with COPD demonstrated a decrease in the production of the proinflammatory M1 cytokines INF-γ, IL-1β, and TNF-α in response to RF-M1, whereas in response to RF-M2 they demonstrated an increase in the production of the proinflammatory M1 cytokines TNF-α and IL-8. Here, TNF is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.