Further, it was shown in humans with a leaky intestinal barrier (such as seen in IBD patients) that TiO2 microparticles were taken up by IEC and could activate the inflammasome and induce IL-1β and IL-18 secretion in the mucosa of Crohn's disease patients, representing a possible mode of aggravation of inflammation in susceptible individuals [70]. This evidence concerns the gene IL1B and inflammatory bowel disease.