HMGB1 and rheumatoid arthritis: There have been several studies regarding HMGB1 stimulating the motility of various cell types such as fibroblasts, dendritic cells, macrophages, smooth muscle cells, and, most recently, neutrophils.35, 36 As an alarmin, treatment with a high concentration of recombinant HMGB1 protein (5 μg/ml or 300 nM) was confirmed to attract inflammatory cells through interactions with RAGE37 and CXCR4.14 In chronic inflammatory disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, a high amount of HMGB1 was reported in the target organ where it induced leukocyte recruitment, resulting tissue damage.38