PTGS2 and Parkinson disease: Microglia activation in PD brains acutely involves a panel of microglial-derived neurotoxic factors such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), elevated pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, and upregulated inflammatory-associated factors such as cyclooxygenase-2, which altogether cooperate to stabilize microglial response in PD brains (Figure 1).