TNF and injury: In another two published studies performed by a Chinese group [27, 28], thalidomide was shown to attenuate PQ-induced acute lung injury through multiple mechanisms which involved downregulation of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 via inhibition of NF-κB activation as well as protection from PQ-induced lipid peroxide damage by activation of the Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway.