TGFB1 and renal cell carcinoma: Nevertheless, several strategies for targeting TGF-β in non-CNS tumors, including anti-sense oligonucleotides, monoclonal antibodies, vaccines, and small-molecule inhibitors, have shown moderate success in pre-clinical models of breast, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatocellular, and renal cell carcinomas, with some proceeding toward human trials (220).