EPO and anemia: While the primary cause of anemia is the inadequate production of erythropoietin by the kidneys to support erythropoiesis (Ramanath et al. 2012), other factors may contribute to CKD-associated anemia, including decreased red blood cell life span, iron, folate and vitamin B12 deficiencies, blood loss, and accumulation of toxic inhibitors of erythropoiesis (McFarlane et al. 2008; Hsu et al. 2002).