TNF and kidney injury: LPS, an endotoxin, is a major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, which are considered the main aetiology of sepsis.The mechanism of LPS-induced kidney injury could be that LPS can stimulate the synthesis and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines by tissue macrophages and circulating monocytes and lead to a transient immune activation, which is characterized by elevated levels of circulating TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-626.