Intriguingly, in NPC cultures, DMF also showed a trend of down-regulating genes including Ccl5 [Chemokine (C–C motif) ligand 5-, 3-fold decrease], which is a ligand of CCR1, CCR3, and CCR5 with the potential to reduce the recruitment of leukocytes into inflammatory sites (Figure 6A). Here, CCL5 is linked to nasopharyngeal carcinoma.