BRCA1 and cancer: Various markers are used today as part of the public health initiatives to ensure (1) early diagnosis, exemplified by PSA testing; (2) characterization of monogenic syndromes that lead to cancer initiation, such as the BRCA1/2 [28] and hMSH2 [29] genes contributing significantly to an increased risk of breast and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), respectively, and (3) genetic subtyping of human papillomaviruses (HPVs) to identify high-risk individuals to develop cervical cancer.