PDC were stimulated with combinations of microbial- and host-derived signals, which coexist at sites of infection: interleukin (IL)-3 and influenza virus (Flu) (Toll-Like Receptor-7 ligand), GM-CSF (Granulocyte-Monocyte Colony Stimulating Factor) and Flu, and GM-CSF and antimicrobial peptide LL37 complexed with mammalian DNA (LL37/DNA, TLR-9 ligand)21. Here, CSF2 is linked to infection.