TNF and brain edema: Additionally, in rat studies using a TBI weight drop paradigm with some parallels to our studies in mice, immediate i.v. administration of a TNF-α binding protein or the competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, pentoxifylline, that lowers TNF-α at a transcriptional level, has been reported to mitigate mTBI-induced brain edema at 24 h and neurological dysfunction evaluated up to 14 days [75].