TNF and viral infectious disease: Inflammation involves a systemic immune response of tissues to a plethora of harmful stimuli—such as bacterial lipopolysaccharides, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α, irradiation or viral infection—and is characterized by an activator protein-1 (AP-1)- and/or nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)-mediated production of several cytokines and chemokines.