HIV-specific four-function CD4+ T cells were not present in those co-infected with LTBI and this was accompanied by a higher proportion of mono-functional T cells: 65%(IFN-γ+(29%),TNF-α+(36%))(Fig. 1E).Further changes in HIV-specific CD4+ T cell polyfunctionality were observed in HIV positive subjects co-infected with TB, with only 5% being able to co-secrete 3 cytokines (IFN-γ+IL-2+TNF-α+) and 76% with mono-functional secretion capacity (TNF-α only (47%), IL-2 only (2%), or IFN-γ only (26%))(Fig. 1G). Here, TNF is linked to tuberculosis.