ALDH1A1 and cancer: In addition, expression of tumour-associated key cytokine/chemokines, such as interleukin-6, interleukin- 8 and CXCR-4, matrix degrading enzyme matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) and cancer stem cell markers like CD44 and ALDH1 observed in the parent HNSCC tumours were also preserved in the CANScript tumour ecosystem (Supplementary Fig. 7a–c).