TNF and pancreatitis: Notably, HMGB1 is actively secreted from monocytes or macrophages in response to proinflammatory stimuli, such as IL-1 and TNF-α, and it can also be passively released by necrotic cells that will induce inflammation; thus HMGB1 may be involved in the pathophysiological process of various infectious diseases including pancreatitis and enhance the inflammatory response [23, 44].