However, analysis of the distal site of infection, which was representative of systemic dispersal, suggested that TNF-α may potentially play an important role in α-toxin-induced pathogenesis and cell death in vivo. These data provide evidence for C. septicum α-toxin-mediated activation of the MAPK pathway and TNF-α release, and suggest an important link between host cell signalling pathways and cell death. Here, TNF is linked to infection.