Similar to PTLD, iatrogenic immunodeficiency-associated lymphoproliferative disorders have been reported in patients who had been treated with purine analogue (fludarabine, pentostatin or clofarabine) with or without alemtuzumab, methotrexate, anti-tumor necrosis factor-α agents (infliximab, adalimumab or etanercept) or other immunomodulators (daclizumab, anakinra or efalizumab) for various lymphoproliferative disorders, leukemia or autoimmune diseases.115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120 Association with EBV was also seen in variable numbers of such cases. Here, TNF is linked to leukemia.