TGFB1 and cancer: However, on the other hand, there are some discrepancies that do not fit these models: halofuginone’s effect of apoptosis, which is usually associated with minimal inflammation; the diversity in apoptosis in differing cell types; inhibition or activation of the NF-κB pathway in different cancer cells [66,126], the disparity in blocking Smad3 phosphorylation in smooth muscle cells and in balloon-injured rat carotid arteries [75], modulation of the expression of some ECM remodeling proteins without affecting TGFβ signaling [24].