TNF and major depressive disorder: Meta-analyses have, in fact, indicated that in the absence of infectious pathogens, peripheral concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially that of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, were higher in non-medicated individuals with depression than in non-depressed individuals (Dowlati et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2012).