TNF and cerebral malaria: Further, the pathogenesis of some forms of severe malaria, including cerebral malaria and severe malarial anemia, includes excessive levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor – alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), all of which have been shown to be modulated by vitamin D [10]–[12].