Murine UTI model led to identification of biomarkers associated with chronic cystitis including elevated serum IL-5 and urine IL-6, G-CSF (Csf2) and KC (CXCL1) [105,106] and more recently the autophagy gene Atg16L1 was shown to play an important role in pathogenesis of UTI [107]. Here, CXCL1 is linked to bacterial urinary tract infection.