CCL5 and HIV-1 infection: For example, a higher expression of genes encoding the chemokine CCL5, heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX-1), thioredoxin reductase, peroxiredoxins, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), etc. are host defense mechanisms well known to negatively regulate HIV-1 infection and replication (77, –, 81).