TNF and coinfection: We performed crude and adjusted analyses of the different cytokine responses among the HHCs with LTBI and did not find any association between the helminth co-infections and cytokine responses to TB antigens (table 4) but confirmed that malaria co-infection was associated with reduced levels of TNFα (aGMR 0.39 (0.18–0.85)), and HIV co-infection with reduced cytokine production of TNFα (aGMR 0.19 (0.09–0.39)), IL-10 (aGMR 0.77(0.65–0.91)), IL-17a (aGMR 0.68(0.53–0.87)), and IL-22 (aGMR 0.44 (0.26–0.74)).