CCL2 and Cognitive impairment: Furthermore, the levels of the pro-inflammatory mediators interleukin-1beta (Il-1β) and chemokine ligand 2 (Ccl2) (also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (Mcp-1), were already upregulated 2.6-fold in 5xFAD brains as early as 2 months of age, illustrating an early inflammatory response in these mice before the appearance of the first cognitive deficits.