For example, individuals with IBD often have impaired innate and adaptive immune responses, with mutations in NOD2, NF-ΚB1 (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells 1) and interleukin-related genes (IL2, IL21, IL23R, etc.)(Jostins et al., 2012), which might further facilitate E. coli adherence and invasion (Fig. 1B). This evidence concerns the gene NOD2 and inflammatory bowel disease.