TNF and infection: Our most recent data show that HHV-8 infected B cells display a novel polyfunctional cytokine production profile, with an abundance of IL-6, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), macrophage inhibitory protein-1α (MIP-1α), macrophage inhibitory protein-1β (MIP-1b) and IL-8 after in vitro infection and in the blood of HHV-8/HIV-1 co-infected subjects with KS (Knowlton et al., 2014).