APP and Alzheimer disease: In addition to the symptomatic, cognitive-enhancing effect via cholinesterase inhibition, HupA has a number of “non-cholinergic” effects on AD, including the ability to protect neurons against Aβ-induced oxidative injury and apoptosis, to ameliorate mitochondrial malfunction, to antagonize NMDA-R, to regulate NGF, promote non-amyloidogenic APP processing, and to reduce iron in the brain (Figure 1).