TNF and Alzheimer disease: Wu et al. [39] reported that a clinically relevant ISO anesthesia (1.4% ISO) promotes Alzheimer's disease neuropathogenesis by increasing the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 Kotani et al. [40] demonstrated that 2.1% ISO augments expression of proinflammatory cytokines in rat alveolar macrophages during mechanical ventilation.